Gregory
Hadley
Department
of General Education
Nagaoka
National College of Technology
Rebecca Harding Davis was
pioneering American writer of the late 19th century. Her works are generally considered as classic examples of
early American realism. Her
passionate, prosaic writings sometimes harbored naturalistic sentiments, other
times she resembled the style of Nathaniel Hawthorne. As a realist and a social activist, her tales were mostly
concerned with the burning issues of her era, the “stories of to-day” -- an
idea which preceded William Dean Howells’ “theory of the commonplace” by over
twenty years.[1] Of this comparison to Howell, a
contemporary review of Davis’ work noted that she
“...succeeds in giving a truer
impression of American conditions than any writer we know except Mr. Howells,
while there is a vast difference between his delicately illuminated
preparations of our social absurdities and Mrs. Davis’s grim and powerful
etchings. Somehow she contrives to
get the American atmosphere, its vague excitement, its strife for effort, its
varying possibilities.[2]
Rebecca Harding Davis’ writings
often preceded the works of other well-known authors of her day. Her portrayal of the psychological pain
of soldiers during the American Civil War was written years before that of
Stephen Crane. Davis’ study of the
social imprisonment of Victorian women anticipated Kate Chopin, and her riveting
denouncement of the dehumanizing effects of industrialization and capitalism
were written well before Upton Sinclair’s novels.
Although credited with over 500
published works, most of Rebecca Harding Davis’ writings were already forgotten
by the time she died in 1910. Her
work was rediscovered in the early 1970's by the feminist writer Tillie Olson,
who found a serialized version of one of Davis’ books moldering in a junk shop.[3] The timing could not have been more
fortuitous, for in the 1970's, American society was once again forced to deal
with the sorts of social issues that Rebecca Harding Davis addressed: Greed,
Corruption, the Oppression of Immigrant Workers, Racism and the Exploitation of
Women.
It has been these similar social
problems in recent years that have caused some Japanese scholars to show
interest in Davis’ writings, and it is expected that translations of her works
will soon follow. However, before
any serious study of her work can take place, it is necessary to know something
of her life and cultural background.
This paper will introduce readers to the life of Rebecca Harding Davis,
and survey some of the significant cultural forces of the time which motivated
her as a writer. Special attention
also will be given to the considerable influence her Christian faith had in the
shaping of her stories.
Life of Rebecca Harding Davis:
A Brief Biography
Much of what we know about Rebecca
Harding Davis is found in her autobiography, Bits of Gossip.[4]
Davis was born June 24, 1831 in Washington, Virginia to Richard Harding and
Rachel Wilson. Richard Harding was
an Englishman who had immigrated to the United States, and Rachel Wilson was
from a respected well-to-do family in Pennsylvania. Rebecca lived for a few years in Alabama, and soon after her
brother Wilson was born, she and her family moved to steel mill town of
Wheeling, Virginia in 1837.
It was in Wheeling that Rebecca’s
father became a prominent businessman and city official. She remembers him as a strict, bigoted
man who considered women as little more than servants. Rebecca’s father privately thought that
American culture was “vulgar”, and shunned the outside world as much as
possible. He spent his free
time holed up in his room, reading the works of Shakespeare.[5] Nevertheless, Richard Harding was not a
cruel man, and his success as a businessman provided Rebecca and her family
with a comfortable life. She was
nurtured by her father, who had some skill as a storyteller, and educated by
her mother, who taught her to read and write. In such an environment, Rebecca was soon reading the many
books in her house. Davis fondly
remembered the summer afternoons she spent in her backyard treehouse reading
books by Sir Walter Scott, John Bunyan or Nathaniel Hawthorne.[6]
When Davis got older, she wanted
to attend college. However, her
father felt it was a waste of money to provide more than a rudimentary
education for women. This was
evidenced by the fact that he hired private tutors to teach Rebecca’s younger
brother, but none for her. At the
time, Oberlin College was the only school in the country that accepted women,
but her parents would not allow her to go there because they considered it too
liberal. Rebecca eventually went
to Washington Women’s Seminary in Washington, Pennsylvania, a school which
trained women to become missionaries, pastor’s wives and teachers. During this time she studied the Bible
intensively. Washington,
Pennsylvania was also on the American lecture circuit, which meant that
scholars and political thinkers regularly came to the city to lecture on
abolitionism, human rights, women’s rights and the plight of immigrants. Couched within the ethical teachings of
Christianity, Rebecca Harding Davis was
challenged to explore ideas, read widely, and think for herself about social as
well as religious issues. Judging
from her later writings, it is likely that during this time in her life, Davis
began to reach the conclusion that in order to be faithful to the ethical
teachings of Christ, one should work for to bring justice to those who were
suffering injustice.
After three years, she graduated
at the top of her class and returned home, where she found her family hostile
to her liberal ideas. Rebecca was
expected to stay at home and help her mother take care of her brothers and
sisters, who now numbered five. In
her spare time, Rebecca tried to continue her education at home by studying her
brother’s old college textbooks, but under the psychological pressure of her
parent’s constant opposition and the chore of taking care of little
children, she became deeply
depressed. She felt that life had
become a curse because she was unable to use anything that she had learned.[7] From the pit of this despair, she found
strength to make a break from the bondage imposed upon her by her family and
social class. Soon afterwards, she got a job writing for the local newspaper,
the Wheeling Intelligencer.[8] This allowed her to get away from the
oppressive influence of her family a few hours each day, and to make a little
money. More importantly, during
the twelve years that she worked the Intelligencer, Davis was able to
hone her writing skills and witness the real life drama of people’s lives
unfold in front of her eyes on a regular basis.
In 1861 Davis’ first novella, Life
in the Iron Mills, appeared in the prestigious literary paper, the Atlantic
Monthly. Her work immediately
received national acclaim, and she received a letter of approval from Nathaniel
Hawthorne, who encouraged her to continue writing. She wrote other stories regularly for the Atlantic
Monthly and Peterson’s Magazine, and in a short time became
well-known in literary circles.
She was soon befriended by thinkers and literary giants such as Oliver
Wendell Holmes, Bronson Alcott, Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, Henry Ward Beecher,
Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Nathaniel Hawthorne. A couple of years later, she married Lemuel Clarke
Davis, an abolitionist writer for Peterson’s and admirer of her stories
and novels.
Davis’ literary career never again
reached the level of acclaim that it had with her first short stories and
novellas. Soon after marrying, her
father had taken ill, and needed constant care. She frequently spent time at her parents house to take care
of him, but he vehemently opposed her views on abolition and women’s rights,
and so made her visits unbearable.
Soon before his death, she had a nervous breakdown, and needed to be
sent away for some months to recuperate.
With the passing of her father, Davis life stabilized, and she and her
husband had two boys and a girl.
About the same time, she began working as a contributing editor to the New
York Tribune. It must be
remembered that the idea of a “working mother” was unheard of in Victorian
middle and upper class families.
Rebecca Harding Davis decision to maintain a career while at the same time taking care of a family was
certainly a century ahead of her time.
Because of the financial needs to support her growing family, she began
to write her literary pieces for magazines which would pay more. During this
time she wrote In the Market, which began her many works centering on
feminist issues, John Andross, a novel about political corruption, Kitty’s
Choice, and A Law Unto Herself. She also published a collection of her short stories in Silhouettes
of American Life. Davis wrote
that the purpose of this last work was, to borrow from her father, “...to dig
into this commonplace, this vulgar American life, and see what is in it.”[9] Nevertheless, although she wrote
a astonishing number of short stories and novels from the late 1860's to the
1890's, the quality of her literary work suffered as a result of responsibilities as a mother.
In her later years, Davis’ stories
dealt with how women are frequently denied careers or the opportunity to
develop their talents because of oppressive marriages, class or
gender-discrimination. She felt
that the social conditions for Victorian women were “...a tragedy more real
than...any other in life.” It seems however that, at least for a short period,
Davis was able to overcome some of the oppression and discrimination she
regularly experienced for being a woman.
She and her husband became one of the prominent American families of the
1890's. One of her sons, through
their friendship with President Grover Cleveland, became an ambassador to
Italy. Her other son, Richard
Harding Davis, became a writer, journalist and playwright more famous than
she.
Rebecca Harding Davis once wrote
that “. . .some women write because there is in them a message to be given, and
they cannot die until they have spoken it.”[10] Sadly however, interest in Davis’
message waned by the turn of the century.
She was all but forgotten by the time she died in 1910. Her tombstone painfully reflects this
decline, as well as the tide of chauvinism which erased her name: “L. Clarke
Davis 1834 - 1904 and his Wife.”[11]
What urged Rebecca Harding Davis
to fight against personal indifference, inaction and hypocrisy, and instead
make a stand for justice in an unjust world? What was it that gave Rebecca Harding Davis the courage to
stand against what seemed to be a hopeless struggle against bigotry, racism and
exploitation? From where did she
derive her strength and inspiration?
To understand the answer to these questions, one must first look at the
cultural and socioreligious forces which shaped life of Rebecca Harding Davis
and many other women in her social class.
Our attention will now shift to a survey of American Christianity in the
19th century, it’s effect upon the lives of middle-class women, and to the
influence that the Bible had in Rebecca Harding Davis’ writings.
Because Christian societies such
as the Puritans, Pilgrims and Quakers were some of the foundational groups of
North American Culture, it is commonly believed that the United States of
America has always been a Christian country. While these and other groups have had considerable influence
on American thought, the culture as a whole has historically fluctuated between
Christian zeal and practical agnosticism.
For example, in the 1790's only ten percent of the total American
population claimed to be Christian.[12] By the beginning of the 19th century,
however, America experienced a renewed interest in Christianity. Called the Second Great Awakening, it
swept across the country in a series of ebbs and flows which lasted for over
fifty years. Protestant
denominations such as the Methodists, Baptists and Presbyterians grew
remarkably during this period, and by the 1850's literally millions of
Americans had converted to the Christian faith.[13]
The emphasis of the movement was
two-fold: Personal Faith and
Social Action. These two aspects
of American Protestant faith were seen as inseparable, with one unable to
function without the other.[14] Personal faith was defined by
repentance, a conscious decision to believe in Christ as Savior, and living a
pure life as defined by the moral teachings of the Bible. Social action meant that Christians
should be actively involved in either evangelism or attacking the social evils
of the American establishment.[15]
The evangelical efforts of
American missionaries abroad during the 1800's is well known. In Japan they founded schools,
women’s colleges and helped improve the conditions of social outcasts like the burakumin
and lepers.[16] What is less known is the strong
element of social reform which took place in America as a result of the Second Great
Awakening, and of the pivotal role that women held in this moral crusade.
With the exception of a season of
decline following its defeat in the War of 1812, America experienced
significant economic growth during the early 1800's. This caused an increase in middle-class families, affluence
and more leisure time for women.
Because personal faith and social action were seen as inseparable, it
was common to find middle-class American women devoting time and money to one
of any number of different Christian social reform movements.[17] In what one writer of the time
called “their prodigious influence,”[18]
from the late 1830's up until the beginning of the 20th century, several
movements which fought for social justice were both started and lead by
Christian women. In all of their
efforts for social reform, the teachings of the Bible were seen as the
blueprint for building a new American society.[19] With the Bible as their guide, women
militantly fought for equal education opportunities for women and minorities,
improved pay and working conditions, the abolition of slavery, women’s rights
and liberation from exploitation such as prostitution.[20]
There have been a number of
commentaries written on the life of Rebecca Harding Davis, but it is remarkable
that few make mention of her Christian faith, and none have recognized the
considerable influence that her faith has had in the formation of her stories. Raised in a middle-class Christian
family, educated in a conservative women’s seminary, and influenced by the
social conscious coming from the Second Great Awakening, Rebecca Harding Davis’
works are clearly address with the problems that Christians of her day were
concerned with: Slavery, worker
exploitation, equal education, and justice for women locked in the bondage of
prostitution or sexual discrimination.
There is also a spiritual dimension to her stories, for sometimes God’s judgment breaks out in a
supernatural manner.
Yet her writings are in no way
simplistic. Davis recognized there
were no easy answers to the issues she addressed, and the characters of her
stories are complex -- people who are less black and white in terms of morality,
and more varying shades of gray.
Quite often, however, the villains of her writings are people from Davis
own social class, and possibly various manifestations of her father. She was most critical of people who
professed a Christian faith and knowledge of the Bible, but used that knowledge
to justify a status quo resulting in the cruel exploitation and dehumanization
of all who were not white, Anglo-Saxon males. It is primarily to this audience that Davis wrote, as
an attempt to stir them from their hypocrisy and self-satisfaction, and
motivate them to truly live out the implications of their Christian faith.
This is seen most vividly in John
Lamar, a story written during the American Civil War, in which Davis
condemns slavery. In it we find a
devout Christian slave owner who, while oppressing his Negro slaves, knows more
of the results of freedom than his Northern captors. His hypocritical Northern jailers, while involved in a cause
which they believed to be holy and just, sadly misuse the Bible in order to
justify the brutality of their actions.
We find a slave who, after hearing scripture and receiving his first
taste of freedom, uses it to commit murder.
In Life in the Iron Mills,
Davis poignantly highlights the living hell of 19th century immigrant
workers. Exploited, underpaid and
poorly educated, Davis compassionately pleads for their cause, and calls for
the elimination of their inhumane working conditions. We also discover that the
tormentors maintaining the hellish iron mills are middle-class Christians who
quote the Bible as a means to justify their wanton exploitation and
inaction.
The call for equal opportunities
in education for women is highlighted in Marcia. In it, a woman of great courage and creativity attempts
to become a writer, but because she was denied the right to get a formal
education, fails in her endeavor.
Broken and desperate, she is eventually condemned to become the wife of
an ignorant farmer. The need to
free women who are locked in various forms of bondage is dealt with in Promise
of the Dawn and In the Market. In Promise of the Dawn, we find a young
homeless lady reaching out in desperation for someone to liberate her from the
filth and moral decay of her environment.
She eventually dies after being rejected by middle-class Christians who
had the ability to help her. In
the Market examines the effects of sexual discrimination and marriage upon
19th century American women. The
story features the lives of two sisters.
One marries for convenience, but after a short time of prosperity, ends
up a defenseless and poor widow.
The other sister delays marriage and after years of struggle and
sacrifice, eventually becomes independent enough to marry for love and take
care of her impoverished sister.
Hard work was a significant virtue
for Davis. If her characters were
to find liberation and healing, it usually took place through personal effort
and considerable sacrifice. This
is often referred to in her writings as “working out one's salvation with fear
and trembling”, or “bearing one’s cross”
(Philippians 2:12 and Luke 14:27 KJV). These elements can be seen in The Yares of the Black
Mountain and An Ignoble Martyr.
In The Yares of the Black Mountain, several characters endured
patient suffering before
eventually receiving the desire of their hearts. In An Ignoble Martyr, the heroine denies herself the
pleasures of riches and travel in order to serve her family. Because her choice was made in love,
she finds eventual salvation, while those who once tempted her to leave her
family behind suffered misfortune and death. Without minimizing the importance of human action, Davis
also believed in a God who was able to intervene when necessary. The mysterious and supernatural are
dealt with in stories such as Mademoiselle Joan and A Strange Story
from the Coast. Both stories
study the lives of people who make immoral life decisions. In both cases, God’s judgement is
handed down through a vengeful spirit of a departed family member.
Davis’ writings are rich with
references to biblical characters and stories which were well known to her
readers. Often she used the Bible as a “mental canvas” upon which she painted a
contemporary picture in the minds of her readers. Davis used these pictures as living examples to illustrate
her opposition to the social evils of her day. For example, there is Kirby, the
mill owner in Life in the Iron Mills who unwittingly quotes the word of
Pontius Pilate, the Roman Procurator who allowed Christ to die rather than
inconvenience his political career.
Dave, the Northern soldier in John Lamar, quotes the words of
Stephen the martyr, but contributes to the unjust murder of another. Other times, quotes from the Bible are
used as metaphors. In The
Promise of the Dawn, instead of calling Lot a whore who is getting her just
desserts, a Quaker quotes scripture from the book of Proverbs which evokes the
picture and fate of an adulteress.
In this paper, we have
looked at the life of Rebecca Harding Davis, and at a number of cultural
influences which have shaped her writings. In future articles, we will study a number of Rebecca
Harding Davis’ works in greater detail.
Such a literary study will be of interest to some in Japan, because
Rebecca Harding Davis’ stories represent a worldview held not only by
conservative 19th century Christians, but also of many American Christians
today. By providing a glimpse into
this remarkable American subculture, Japanese readers gain a better
understanding of the action-oriented ethics and hypocrisy-hating spirituality
which continues to influence a significant number of Americans today. However, as mentioned in the beginning
of this paper, many of the social problems that Davis addressed are similar to
the challenges which face today’s Japanese society. We may yet learn something from Davis’ insights, and
highlight areas in our lives today which need further action and
introspection.
[1].
Yellin, J. F. Afterword. Margret Howth: A Story of Today.
(New York: Feminist Press, 1990).
[2]. The Nation (1878). Quoted in Reagan, D. ARebecca Harding Davis@. WWW URL:
http://www.kutztown.edu/faculty/reagan/davis.html (March 20, 1998).
[3]. Lasseter, J. M. ARebecca
Harding Davis: A Biographical Sketch and Bibliography.@
URL WWW: http://www.unl.edu/legacy/19cwww/books/elibe/davis/bio.htm
(March 20, 1998).
[4]. Davis, R. H. Bits of Gossip. (New York: Houghton, 1904).
[5]. Pfaelzer, J. (Ed). A Rebecca Harding
Davis Reader. (Pittsburgh:
University of Pittsburgh, 1995), pp. 247.
[6]. Davis, R. H. Bits of Gossip
(1904). WWW URL:
http://www.unl.edu/legacy/19cwww/books/elibe/davis/bostonin.htm (March 20,
1998).
[8]. Lasseter, J. AIntroduction to Rebecca Harding Davis@ WWW URL:
http://www.sanford.edu/schools/artsci/english/lasseter/introrhd.htm
(March 20, 1998).
[9]. Davis, R. H. Silhouettes of American Life . (reprint, New York:
Garrett Press, 1986). Quoted in
Gilbert, S.M and Gubar, S. (Eds.), The Norton Anthology of Women, 2nd
Edition. (New York: W.W. Norton, 1996), pp. 919.
[10]. Harding Davis, R. AWomen in Literature@ (1891). Quoted in Reagan, B. ABiography of
Rebecca Harding Davis@ WWW URL: http://www.kutztown.edu/faculty/reagan/davies.html
(March 20, 1998).
[11]. Lasseter, J. ibid.
[12]. Walker, W. A History of the Christian Church. (New York: Charles Scribner=s Sons, 1985), pp. 652.
[13]. Walker, pp. 655-56.
[14]. Bass, D.C. A>Their Prodigious Influence=: Women, Religion and
Reform in Antebellum America@,
in McLaughlin, E., and Ruether, R. (Eds.), Women of Spirit: Female Leadership in the Jewish and
Christian Traditions. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979), pp. 288.
[15]. Carlson, D.W. ADiscovering Their Heritage: Women and the
American Past@, in
J.S. Hagen (Ed.), Gender Matters: Women=s
Studies for the Christian Community.
(Grand Rapids, Michigan: Acadamie Books, 1990), pp. 99-100.
[16]. Picken, S.D.B. Christianity and
Japan. (Tokyo: Kodansha
International, 1983).
[17]. Bass, pp. 282.
[18]. Child, L.M. The Liberator, vol.
9 (July 23, 1841), p. 118.
[19]. Swartley, W.M. Case Issues in Biblical
Interpretation: Slavery, Sabbath, War and Women. (Scotsdale, Penn.: Herald Press, 1983).
[20]. Storkey, E. What=s Right with Feminism. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B.
Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1985), pp. 140.